Article 1 Adjudicators Outline

II. Article I Adjudicators

Public Rights Doctrine

Administrative adjudicators have been employed since the first Congress to resolve public rights disputes that might have been assigned to Article III courts. Murray’s Lessee approved this practice, noting that “there are matters, involving public rights, which may be presented in such form that the judicial power is capable of acting on them … but which Congress may or may not bring within the cognizance of the” federal courts. Under the public rights doctrine, many disputes between the government and private citizens are decided, at least initially, by Article I adjudicators.

Examples of public rights cases include “claims against the United States,” customs disputes, and immigration disputes (subject to St. Cyr’s requirement that federal habeas review be available). Although the Court has sometimes suggested that public rights disputes can be removed from the purview of federal courts altogether, the legal background has always included a range of common law and equitable (and more recently, statutory) remedies that ensure some form of judicial oversight over these proceedings.

Legislative Courts for Private Law Matters

In Murray’s Lessee, the Court stated that Congress could not withdraw from federal jurisdiction “any matter which, from its nature, is subject of a suit at the common law, or in equity.” And in Crowell v. Benson, the Court considered Congress’s ability to employ Article I adjudicators in these “private right cases.” The Court held that, in such a case, an Article I adjudicator could make conclusive findings of non-constitutional and non-jurisdictional fact, without giving rise to any due process or Article III problem. However, the Court held that federal courts must be able to decide de novo all questions of law, constitutional facts, and jurisdictional facts.¹

The “jurisdictional fact” and “constitutional fact” doctrines are infrequently applied and independent judicial fact-finding almost never occurs. Moreover, the requirement of a de novo inquiry into questions of law has been modified by the Chevron regime.

Agency Adjudication in Criminal Cases

It is undisputed that an administrative agency is prohibited from directly imposing criminal penalties. Moreover, “where a determination made in an administrative proceeding is to play a critical role in the subsequent imposition of a criminal sanction,” the enforcement court must be able to review the agency’s jurisdiction (Estep, plurality) and “there must be some meaningful review of the administrative proceeding,” either by the enforcement court on collateral review or on direct appeal after the issuance of the order (Mendoza-Lopez). Where defects in the administrative proceeding “effectively eliminated” the ability to seek judicial review of the administrative order, due process requires that a criminal enforcement court entertain a collateral challenge to the use of that proceeding as a predicate of a criminal offense (Mendoza-Lopez). Falbo held that a criminal defendant could be estopped from challenging a predicate administrative order to criminal enforcement on exhaustion grounds, but it is unclear whether this holding survives Mendoza-Lopez.

Four Situations Where Legislative Courts are Permissible

Historically, non-Article III courts have been employed in the following circumstances:

TERRITORIAL COURTS. Non-Article III courts can be permissibly employed for use as courts of general jurisdiction in territories of the United States (American Ins. Co.). Territorial courts can adjudicate criminal cases (Palmore, concerning District of Columbia courts).

MILITARY COURTS. Non-Article III military tribunals can constitutionally be employed to enforce military discipline and punish service members (Dynes).

PUBLIC RIGHTS. Non-Article III courts can be permissibly employed to adjudicate public rights (i.e., disputes between the government and private citizens the resolution of which could have been constitutionally vested exclusive in the executive).

ADJUNCTS. Legislative courts are permitted to perform certain functions with respect to criminal matters or civil litigation between private parties where the legislative court serves as an adjunct to an article III court that can review the legislative court’s decisions.

POWER OF NON-ARTICLE III COURTS TO ADJUDICATE ARTICLE III MATTERS. It is clear that non-Article I courts can hear cases falling within Article III’s jurisdictional heads in some cases. For example, territorial courts can hear federal question cases, and public rights tribunals (e.g., the Court of Federal Claims or the Tax Court) can hear federal question cases to which the United States is a party.

Stern v. Marshall: The Roberts Court’s View

Holding: Stern held (5-4) that a non-Article III bankruptcy court could not issue a final judgment on a compulsory state-law counterclaim brought by the bankrupt estate against a bankruptcy claimant, because, Article III prohibits a non-Article III court of broad substantive jurisdiction from issuing a final, binding judgment on a common law cause of action, when the action neither derives from nor depends upon any agency regulatory regime.²

Majority Opinion: The Court began by quoting Murray’s Lessee for the proposition that “in general, Congress may not withdraw from [Article III cognizance] any matter which, from its nature, is the subject of a suit at the common law, or in equity.” Although the Court recognized that there were traditional exceptions, including exceptions for public rights disputes and for non-Article III adjuncts, the Court found neither exception to be applicable here.

Public Rights Exception. The Court noted that the traditional definition of “public rights” involved conflicts “between the Government and persons subject to its authority in connection with the performance of the constitutional functions of the executive or legislative departments,” and that these cases were contrasted with...

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